Anthropometry

Anthropometry is the science of obtaining systematic measurements of the human body. Anthropometry was first developed in the 19th century. ^º century as a method employed by physical anthropologists for the study of human variation and evolution in both living and extinct populations. In particular, these anthropometric measures have historically been used as a means of associating racial, cultural and psychological attributes with physical properties. Specifically, anthropomorphic measures involve size (e.g., height, weight, surface area, and volume), structure (e.g., sitting height vs. standing height), height (e.g., height at the knees vs. height at the feet), and height (e.g., height at the knees vs. height at the knees). standing height(e.g., shoulder and hip width, arm/leg length and neck circumference) and composition (e.g., percentage of fat body fat, water content and lean body mass) in humans.

To obtain anthropometric measurements, a variety of specialised tools are used (as shown below):

• Stadiometers: height
• Anthropometers: length and girth of body segments
• Biocondylar calipers: diameter of bone
• Skinfold calipers: thickness of the skin skin and subcutaneous fat
• Scales: weight

Although most instruments appear simple to use, a high level of training is required to achieve high validity and accuracy of measurements.

Who developed anthropometry: Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914)

Alphonse Bertillon was the son of the physician and founder of the Paris Anthropological Society, Louis-Adolphe Bertillon. Although the process of obtaining human measurements had originated in ancient civilisations, Alphonse Bertillon is credited as the father of anthropometry based on his classification system known as the “anthropometric system” or “judicial anthropometry”. Alphonse Bertillon began his career working for the Paris police in the criminal records department. It was here that Bertillon recognised the recurring problem that it was becoming increasingly difficult to identify repeat offenders, as criminal records were stored alphabetically and many offenders were devising aliases to avoid deportation and harsher sentences.

To address this issue, Bertillon devised a new classification system based on anthropomorphic measurements with the assumption that bone density is fixed after the age of 20 and human dimensions are inherently highly variable. Bertillon obtained measurements of height, width, the size of the foot, the length and breadth of the headHe then classified each individual as small, medium, or large, and added frontal and profile photographs to each file, as well as the length of the middle finger and the length of the left forearm, as well as other morphological and distinguishing characteristics of the offenders in custody (as shown below). He then classified each individual as small, medium or large, and added frontal and profile photographs to each file. This type of photography is still used today in the form of “mug shots”.

After convincing the Paris criminology department to implement Bertillon’s system, this method of classification was used to quickly and easily identify unknown and repeat offenders. The use of this anthropometric system was later called “Bertillonage” and spread rapidly throughout the world in the late 19th and early 20th century.

The history of anthropometry

Ancient anthrometric measurements

The ancient civilisations of Rome, Greece and Egypt primarily used anthropometric measurements for cultural purposes (e.g., artwork) to represent beauty, power and other desirable attributes of the human form. Symmetry was particularly desirable and the units of measurement often consisted of the “width of a human hand” or the length of a human foot.

Anthropomorphic Measurements during the Renaissance

Renaissance artists applied anthropometric measurements to artistic works by applying human proportions. One of the most famous examples are the works of the famous artist Leonardo da Vinci (pictured below with the famous Vitruvian Man), who obtained measurements of the human body by analysing corpses. Other artists relied on living models and historical achievements to obtain accurate anthropometric measurements.

20th century anthropometry

In the 20th century, a sub-discipline of anthropometry, known as “morphometrics”, was established to describe variations in the size and shape of humans within different populations. This method involves the application of multivariate statistics to analyse various biological landmarks to obtain characteristic shapes, proportions or angles. Today, the use of computers has resulted in the evolution of morphometrics into the field of geometric morphometrics, which uses powerful computational models to analyse various features. Today, one of the most common applications of geometric morphometry is the assessment of bone density.

Height was commonly used as an anthropometric measure of human health as early as the 18th century for military, slavery and other productive purposes; however, while these early assessments were generally based on eugenic theories, it was not until the 20th century that environmental and social conditions were correlated with human anthropometric measurements. In particular, North American immigrants were found to exhibit shorter stature compared to later generations born in the Americas.

This observation led to the use of anthropometry to assess nutrition and other socio-economic factors, particularly during growth and development. Today, nutrition, infections, pollution, hypoxia and various forms of psychosocial stress are known to be associated with altered growth patterns. While taller stature is an accurate indicator of greater wealth, weight is an indicator of poor socio-economic status in modern populations. Furthermore, because nutrition correlates so strongly with body size, anthropometry has also been used to identify the impact of disease epidemics and times of famine in historical records. Similarly, important events in human history, such as the industrial revolution, the invention of refrigeration, sanitation, vaccination and other medical advances, are also associated with changes in the anthropometric traits of human populations.

Anthropometry has also been used to identify the impact of disease epidemics and times of famine on historical records. Similarly, important events in human history, such as the industrial revolution, the invention of refrigeration, sanitation, vaccination and other medical advances, are also associated with changes in the anthropometric traits of human populations. Anthropometry has also been used to identify the impact of disease epidemics and times of famine on historical records. Similarly, important events in human history, such as the industrial revolution, the invention of refrigeration, sanitation, vaccination and other medical advances, are also associated with changes in the anthropometric traits of human populations.

The historical use of anthropometry has been applied to a wide range of applications, including:

• Palaeoanthropology and human evolution.
• Biological anthropology
• Craniometry and craniofacial attributes.
• Phylogeography
• Criminology and forensics
• Phrenology
• Physiognomy
• Personality and mental typology

While some of these anthropomorphic applications have been used to collect scientific and epidemiological data, they have also been applied to support eugenic and racist social agendas.

Paleoanthropology

The application of anthropomorphic techniques to the field of palaeoanthropology has proven to be a scientific method of great value for the study of human evolution through the use of remains fossils. In particular, craniometry has been used to measure various skull and facial features to evaluate prehistoric fossils. Such measurements have been critical in the study of human evolution, as craniometry has allowed physical anthropologists to quantify gradual changes in the size and shape of the pre-human skull as an adaptation to increased brain volume. In addition, both craniomorphic and other anthropomorphic measurements have been essential to current theories of the evolution of the human skull. bipedalism and the large size of the brain in humans.

Experimental psychology

In the late 1800s, there was a movement towards the application of anthropometry to the field of psychology. While some physical anthropometric measures were used, such as body size, height, arm length, etc., psychologists began to assess these attributes in association with other human measures, including sight (e.g., colour, distance, and clarity), touch (e.g., sensitivity, weight, and pain), movement (e.g., speed and reaction time), memory, and mental fatigue.

Forensic anthropometry

Originating from Bertillon’s anthropometric classification system applied to the field of criminology, forensic anthropometry involves the application of anthropometry to the identification of human remains. The aim of forensic anthropometry is to establish age at death, height, body type (somatotype), sex and any other distinguishing characteristics based on physical and skeletal measurements in order to identify the deceased individual. In particular, forensic anthropometry uses somatometry and osteometry to establish age, sex, height and ethnicity to establish a positive identification.

Anthropometric somatotypes

Anthropometric measurements can be used to describe particular human physiques, known as somatotypes. There are three main somatotypes, as illustrated below (endomorph, ectomorph and mesomorph), although some individuals may represent a hybrid of two somatotypes.

Endomorph

An endomorph refers to human beings whose tissues are predominantly derived from the endodermexhibited by a smooth, rounded shape, large digestive viscera, accumulation of fat, large trunk and tapering limbs. The degree of endomorphy is calculated based on the measurement of triceps, subscapular and suprailiac skinfold thickness corrected for height as an indication of the amount of fat in the body. To ensure validity, these measurements are usually combined with at least one other measure of body fat percentage, such as underwater measurements.

Ectomorph

Ectomorph refers to human beings whose tissues are primarily derived from the ectodermexhibited by a linear body shape, a large surface area, thin muscles and tissue subcutaneous tissue and moderately developed digestive viscera. Ectomorphy is calculated by obtaining height and mass measurements and assessing the level of linearity. In the Heath-Carter method, a cubic ratio known as the cf Ponderal index is used.

Mesomorph

A mesomorph refers to humans whose tissues are derived primarily from the mesoderm, exhibited by increased muscle, bone and connective tissue. These individuals typically have a hard physique and a rectangular shape, intermediate between the endo- and ectomorph. Mesomorphy is calculated based on the bone diameter and muscle circumference of two upper and two lower limbs, corrected for skinfold thickness and compared to the individual’s height as an indication of musculoskeletal development.

Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype

Different somatotypes can be calculated using the Heath-Carter protocol to obtain direct measures of the size, structure and composition of the human body.
Size measurements involve:

• Height, length and width of head
• Head shape
• Sitting and standing height (gives an indication of the height of the trunk and the ratio of the lower limbs).
• Androgyny index (relative width of the shoulder and pelvis; typically a good indicator of sexual dimorphism after puberty)

Structural measures include:

• Height
• Weight
• Body Mass Index

Measurements of human composition are based on the fact that the human body is composed of:

• fat
• Muscle
• Bone
• Connective tissue
• Nervous tissue (e.g., the brain)
• Organs (e.g, Heart, liveretc.)
• Skin

Generally, body composition calculations assume that skin, muscle, bone and other tissues constitute the lean body mass and the percentage of body fat differs between men and women (approx. 28% vs. 40.5% for men and women, respectively).

Current applications of anthropometry

While physical anthropologists and criminologists continue to use anthropometric measurements in the study of human evolution through the comparison of new fossil remains with archived specimens and forensic analysis, respectively, current applications have extended to:

• Industrial design and architecture (e.g. vehicle seats and cabins).
• Clothing (e.g. military uniforms)
• Ergonomics (e.g. Seating)
• Medicine (e.g. nutrition, ageing, obesity, sports science and diabetes)

In these industries, anthropometric data is invaluable for the optimisation of various products and for observing the changes that occur in response to various lifestyle, genetic and ethical factors.

Ergonomics

Economics, as applied to anthropometric measurements, derives from the understanding that all aspects of human life involve activity (e.g., leisure, work, family, education, spirituality, and physical exercise). As such, specific tools and equipment are required for each activity. Ergonomics is the industry focused on the design and creation of these tools through the assessment of human comfort, movement and other anthropometric measures. Optimal design is usually created with an interdisciplinary team that includes anthropologists, psychophysicists and physiologists. Ergonomic designs are tested with a series of experiments involving:

1. Obtaining anthropometric measurements to derive “ergonomic dimensions” of posture and movement.
2. To record the subjective feelings of comfort experienced by the individual when using the equipment.
3. To assess the instrument’s ability to perform the desired activity.

Anthropometric measurements in the field of ergonomics are obtained in a variety of positions, including sitting, standing, lying, as well as various derivatives of these poses (e.g., arms outstretched, hands on a table, arms raised above the head, etc.). In addition, due to the high degree of human variability by ethnicity and body composition, the use of multivariate statistics is often applied to several anthropometric measures for the creation of an optimal design.

Kineanthropometry

Kinatropometry involves obtaining measurements of the human body for the application of human movement. These measurements include body proportions, composition, somatotype, maturation, motor capacity, cardiorespiratory capacity and physical performance. Therefore, kinanthropometry is highly aligned with the related disciplines of physical education, sports science, paediatrics, physical anthropology, gerontology and ergonomics.

Medical science

While early anthropometric measurements have been applied to the field of medicine since the early 17th century, anthropometric measurements have been applied to the field of medicine since the early 19th century. ^º century as a correlate of disease, recent medical applications involve radiological measurements, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 3D imaging, cosmetology, geriatricspaediatrics and bariatrics (obesity). In particular, radiology has been used since the late 19th century to obtain X-rays that can be used to assess bone density and other internal attributes (e.g., lung function). Similarly, CT has been used to obtain cross-sectional images of the human body to characterise bone mineral density, distinguish between cortical and trabecular bone density and degenerative changes in the spine. MRI has been applied to obtain high quality images of the brain and other organs, and 3D imaging has allowed quantification of the various anatomical structures within the human body. Data generated from these imaging modalities have been used to improve human health and quality of life.

In cosmetology, undesirable features caused by injury or ageing can be corrected using facial anthropometry to identify disproportions and the necessary modifications can be calculated using 3D imaging and reconstruction software. Another medical application of anthropometry is breast cosmetology, which involves the assessment of breast density, volume and asymmetry using mammography, 3D imaging and other imaging techniques to determine the most appropriate surgical course of treatment.

Paediatrics

As mentioned above, anthropometry has long been recognised as an indicator of human health. As such, anthropometry is widely used to assess the growth and development of human beings, both in the uterus as well as during infancy. The most important anthropometric measurements during this period include head circumference, weight and length/height. Head circumference is particularly important as it correlates with brain growth. In particular, paediatric head circumference measurements are used to identify severe and/or chronic malnutrition in children under two years of age, as well as possible growth abnormalities of the brain. fetus.

Weight is also used to assess the presence of malnutrition and is plotted on established growth curves to monitor a child’s growth over time. Length and height are used to assess body mass index, creatinine height index, height-for-age and basal energy expenditure. Extremely short height-for-age may indicate chronic malnutrition or other musculoskeletal abnormalities.